fNIRS-BCI Neurofeedback in Stroke Rehabilitation

Inclusion Criteria 1. unilateral upper extremity motor deficits caused by ischemic stroke, confirmed by medical documents such as discharge summary and/or neuroimaging examinations. 2. chronic phase of stroke, i.e., time after stroke onset more than six months. 3. aged between 18 and 75 years old. 4. with mildly-to-moderately impaired upper limb functional activity that is stratified according to the levels 3-7 in the Functional Test for the Hemiplegic Upper Extremity. 5. able to give informed written consent to participate in the study. 6. able to read and understand traditional Chinese. Exclusion Criteria 1. previous diagnosis of any neurological disease excluding ischemic stroke. 2. presence of any sign of cognitive problems (The Montreal cognitive assessment Hong Kong version\<22/30). 3. Severe spasticity measured by the Modified Ashworth Scale score\>2 in the hand, wrist or elbow extensor muscle in the hemiparetic upper extremity. 4. with other notable impairments of the upper limb not caused by stroke (e.g., bone fracture in the past year, congenital deformity, or other impairments). 5. current participation in any other treatment programme or clinical study involving exercise, non-invasive brain stimulation, or BCI/neurofeedback.